School Essay: An Analysis of the Success of Japan’s Video Game Industry

This is an essay I wrote in a class I took called "The History of Modern Japan." The class only had 1 essay due, but it was a big one, and as such the teacher let us choose any topic we wanted that concerned modern Japan. I talked with him about it, and threw around the idea of doing Japan's video game industry. He was for it, and so now after months of research, reading, and understanding the video game industry, I finished. I just got the paper back, getting an A, so I'm happy about that.

I don't normally post my school work here, but given that the topic I wrote was video games, I thought it was worth sharing. After all, doing this paper has completely changed how I view the video game industry in general, especially in Japan and North America. So if you're interested, have a read. It's a little long, so for that reason I'll put two lines to denote what I think are the least important and I would argue weakest part of the essay that aren't worth reading.

Anyways, enjoy, and huge thanks to anyone that actually reads this! I'd like to add some of my own commentary on the essay in the following posts and how it's changed my perception of video games:

            The video game industry first emerged in the 1970s, and since then has continued to expand. In the early 2000s, it surpassed the global film industry in terms of revenue.[1] As of 2018, the largest markets were the United States and China.[2] The United States in particular has remained a leading market in the industry since its inception, as the industry was born on the country’s west coast.[3] Yet, despite being its birthplace, the United States market would eventually be overtaken by another: Japan. Japan’s game industry eclipsed that of the United States during the 1980s, remaining the dominant market for decades.[4] Even by 2002, when it was clear their position was weakening, Japan still controlled 50% of global video game market share.[5] How was Japan able to attain such a position? What comparative advantages did Japan have over the United States? This paper will explore the histories of video games in the United States and Japan, studying the unique traits of modern Japan that allowed it to excel at the creation of a large and stable video game industry. In doing so, it will conclude that the significant factor that allowed Japan to pursue video game development so effectively was connections; connections thanks to its small geography, connections between workers and companies thanks to Japan’s business culture, and most importantly, connections with the consumer electronics, comic book, and animation industries, that all combined to shape modern Japan as an ideal location for establishing a video game industry.

            Video games first gained popularity in the late 1970s. The game that kickstarted this was Pong, which was published by Atari.[6] Atari was founded by Nolan Bushnell, an engineer fresh out of university that wanted to make a name for himself in the world of technology, while distancing himself from the US military.[7] Bushnell and Atari had a similar background to that of Steve Jobs and Apple, or Bill Gates and Microsoft. These companies emerged alongside the growth of Silicon Valley, as young Americans with an education in computers and electronics sought to make it on their own in emerging markets.[8] Many of these companies existed along the west coast, resulting in networks between them. Steve Jobs for example worked at Atari before moving on to Apple. He expressed interest in video games, as evidenced by Apple’s early computers, which were capable of playing some of the first computer games.[9]

The important takeaway was that video games emerged from existing structures of computers and electronics, because these were necessary for the creation and spread of video games. Initially, Atari and its competitors found success from entering the new industry.[10] In 1978, the American video game industry grew to $200 million, and by 1981 it was $1 billion.[11] However, as the business spread, it became more complex, and a wider variety of skills were necessary for creating games. Musicians were suddenly needed for constructing music, artists for visual components, programmers for creating the increasingly complex structures of the games, testers for finding errors in the code, etc.[12] American companies responded to this complexity by expanding their businesses. However, they reached a point in which companies were unable to keep up with consumer demand, leading to the video game crash of 1983. During this, the quality of video games had dropped so much that consumer confidence and desire for video games had been largely eroded in the United States, driving many firms out of the business.[13]

            The United States however was not the only country seeing a growing technological market that would lead to the creation of video games. Japan during this same period had begun developing and selling its first video games. Like the United States, Japan had large consumer electronics industries, and government policies that helped facilitate innovation and technological development.[14] However, examining the emergence of the video game industry revealed noticeable differences from that of the United States. First, there was no video game crash in Japan, nor any downturn in consumer confidence towards video games. Second, even before the 1983 crash, many of the most successful video games in Japan and the United States came from the island nation. Pac Man and Space Invaders, the most popular games in the United States during this time, were both Japanese products.[15] Japan was finding success in video games even during this early stage.

            To reiterate, the process of creating and selling video games was a complex one. A video game industry could only emerge out of markets that already had infrastructure for both the technological and artistic skills that were necessary. This is why during the early years of video games, the major markets existed primarily in the United States and Japan.[16] These countries had industries that were geared towards innovation and having a diverse economy of various skill sets. However, while being in possession of these industries was one thing, being able to effectively connect them to one another was a different matter, and key to understanding Japan’s success.

            A first point in Japan’s favor was its geographic layout, or to be more specific, Tokyo, and its significance as the industrial centre of Japan. Tokyo was not only the economic and political capital of Japan, but it also was right next to Japan’s second largest city (Yokohama), allowing it to attract the majority of talented individuals.[17] The result was that Tokyo became the centre of most technological industries within the country.[18] This concentrated nature of not just Japan’s industries, but technical and artistic schools for training new employees, made it the perfect location for the emergence of a new business that required connections with workers of many different skills sets.[19] As of the early 2000s, Tokyo had over 80% of all of Japanese video game firms, showing how significant the area was for establishing the industry.[20] To contrast this, the growth of Silicon Valley in the United States was not the ideal location for such an industry. Much of the previous technological, entertainment, and manufacturing industries were established on the east coast or central United States, hampering the easily available resources of video game creators by being on the west coast.[21]

-----------------------feel free to skip the part under this line----------------------------------

            While Japan’s geography helped the video game industry to establish connections with existing structures, another element at play was the business culture of modern Japan. Studies have showed that within Japan’s work culture there was less emphasis on the individual element of groups of employers compared to the United States.[22] This worked well for video games, because they required so much coordination and cooperation between workers of many different fields. Shigeru Miyamoto, a well-known video game designer at Nintendo, had this to say on its importance and difference among countries: “UK software publishers pay attention to the structure of games at all stages of the development process...their approach is based on a solid understanding of hardware architecture, widely shared by Japanese software publishers, but seldom found among US publishers.”[23]

            This emphasis on group thinking had been criticized as stifling innovation, making it a hinderance when constructing products in an artistic medium.[24] Japan’s success in video games however showed this was false. Cornelia Storz found in a study on Japan’s economy that while Japan did have less entrepreneurship than the United States, “it is remarkable to observe that they [small and medium sized enterprises] play a much more important role in the Japanese economy than in most other OECD countries.”[25] This was because Japan’s business culture encouraged small group businesses rather than individual businesses. It did not limit the ability for new businesses to emerge and grow, and was an important part in driving Japan’s economy and innovation since the 1960s.[26]

            Another common critique of Japan’s work culture was its labour laws that required employers to hold on to employees for long periods of time. The average Japanese software developer worked for a company twice as long as their American counterpart.[27] This created business norms that encouraged workers to feel obligated to their employer for nurturing them for so long.[28] This was argued as limiting innovation by restraining workers to such few companies. However, this argument had also been debunked. Many studies showed that by having workers stay at a company for longer periods of time, it encouraged them to change positions and learn new skills within the company, rather than between companies. This, plus the added security from working in the same company encouraged workers to experiment more with their work and try to innovate.[29]

This was not the only way Japan’s business culture encouraged innovation. Having so many industries stationed within Tokyo also helped. Seiji Hanazawa argued that large clusters of companies drove innovation by creating a safety net. Through the large amount of consumers and protection the connected industries had from each other, plus the increased job security, workers were penalized less for a failed experiment, thus encouraging firms to try novel ideas for their products.[30] The same study also found that companies frequently outsourced and worked with other industries as a means of driving innovation within their own employers, which often worked.[31] Such connections were only possible in metropolises like Tokyo. This resulted in workers having different specializations: in the United States, employers valued basic skills that could be translated between different industries more due to the less secure nature of employment.[32] In Japan, workers had a greater number of sophisticated skills, and were better at multitasking.[33] All of this is to say that Japan’s business policies, geography, and norms gave workers an effective skill set when it came to forming compromises and finding ways to innovate and use limitations to their advantage. Keiji Inafune, a game designer best known for his creation of the Mega Man series, had this to say on a key part of the success of early Japanese game developers:

I think, to use the car industry as an analogy, nowadays American and European cars, they can be massive and they can throw in loads and loads of technology, and that’s great. But if you want to get a car which is very, very small, but you still have to fit 4 people in it, or you’ve still got to fit hybrid technology in it, Japan is where people are good at looking at those limitations and working out how to marry those limitations with their goals.[34]

-------------------feel free to skip the part above this line----------------------------------

            The geography and business culture of Japan helped facilitate connections between its many businesses, however, specific industries leading in consumer electronics and computers were necessary for the growth of a video game industry. Japan however had these, and it was this technological infrastructure that helped video game companies grow and mass produce their products in a short time. Rather than create brand new lines of manufacturing, they were able to utilize existing infrastructure to create their software. Looking at the success of Japanese firms confirmed this. Nintendo, one of Japan’s most successful video game companies, was previously a toy company which took an interest in electronic toys starting in 1964. They gained expertise in electronics through the help of domestic companies such as Sharp and Mitsubishi electronic.[35] If these companies did not exist, Nintendo would have been unable to develop the expertise needed for video game development. Sega, another successful company, used small engineering firms in Tokyo for its production of video game components, again showing the usage of existing firms for video game production.[36] Finally, Sony found success when entering the video game industry, and much of it was owed to its already existing investments and infrastructure for consumer electronics.[37] At the time, international supply chains were underdeveloped, so these companies had to rely on domestic structures within other industries of Japan.[38]

However, while all these connections helped lay the groundwork for the creation of a video game industry, they alone did not shape the industry’s projection. The United States also featured such computer and electronic infrastructure, as did the existence of clusters of many industries. Again, why was Japan able to outgrow them so quickly? To answer this, the other creative industries that held the largest influence on Japan’s video game industry must be examined: the comic book and animation industries.

            Japan owned one of the largest and most profitable comic book and animation industries in the world. In 1999, one third of all books and magazines sales in Japan were comic books, with approximately two thirds of boys and one sixth of girls aged between 5 and 18 reading comic books.[39] More significant however was the amount of adult comic books that populated the industry. In 1999, 53% of all comics published were targeting adult audiences.[40] While the video game industry was emerging, the comic book and animation industries were growing exponentially. They had not yet reached an international audience, however, they had become mainstream in Japanese culture. As the video game business took shape and began to become profitable, many animators and artists looked at the comic book and animation industries, with schedules that had them working overtime far too much and with little pay to compensate for this, and saw an opportunity.[41] This plus the close proximity of all the industries meant that many animators and artists quickly migrated to the video game industry, picking up computer skills along the way. The migration was so great that, there were a few years in which Japan’s animation industry had a shortage of workers because so many were moving to the video game industry.[42]

            To compare, the comic book and animation industries of the United States did not have the sort of popularity that Japans’ did. While both industries emerged much earlier, comic books and animation eventually came under government censorship. The 1954 Comics Code Authority crippled the creative freedom of artists within the country: “The number of comic book titles declined from 630 in 1952 to 250 in 1956, and circulation almost halved, leading many publishers to leave the industry or be forced into bankruptcy.”[43] Comics Code Authority also created a popular image of comics and animations being artistic mediums primarily for children, limiting their mainstream appeal.[44] American comic book artists also had less control over their products, further hurting the industry.[45] As of 2006, the size of the United States comic industry was about 6% as large as its Japanese counterpart.[46]

The significance of these businesses was that the video game developers of Japan had a unique background and expertise when it came to video game creation. While most if not all initial video game developers in the United States came from a technical background, many of Japan’s developers, while also having a technical background, possessed some knowledge and skills in drawing and animating.[47] Video game creation and training started to take place in schools that also specialized in teaching animation and drawing for students, resulting in the skills between the disciplines intersecting.[48] This gave them a comparative advantage when it came to the nature of scenario and character creation, as well as rendering simple visuals in creative ways. As games became more complex, it was possible to render detailed characters and create more complex scenarios, something that audiences responded highly to.[49] Due to the limited technology however, developers would have to be creative if they wanted to create appealing characters and scenarios. Solving this dilemma was much easier for developers with a background in drawing.

When games and development systems of Japan and the United States were compared, one clear distinction between them was that games in the United States had a greater emphasis on realism as a visual style. Designs from the United States were drawn largely from realistic counterparts, such as well-known athletes or film characters.[50] The large presence of Hollywood on North American culture, which found most success through live action films, was the key factor in this. American developers of video games were largely influenced by live action films.[51] This influence remained a part of the industry, a study comparing game development between the United States and Japan in 2015 found that American video games were more often based on licensed characters, usually from the film industry.[52] However, this reliance created a problem for developers, due to the limited technology of video games at the time. Because video games considered the interactions of the player, it was not possible to render characters or backgrounds that resembled live action films, creating a dilemma for developers.[53]. Upon a closer inspection of the American video game industry, Aoyama and Izushi argued that the video game crash could be viewed as the result of American developers being unable to solve this dilemma. Struggling to create appealing characters, American firms increasingly turned to licensing characters from films in an effort to find success.[54] However, due to the limited storage capacity and microprocessors, these characters and their subsequent games, such as Atari’s Raiders of the Lost Ark and E.T. the Extra Terrestrial were economic failures.[55] This failure between video games and licensed film characters contributed to the rapid decline of American consumer interest, and the eventual market crash.[56] The United States video game industry failed because it was unable to successfully establish connections with Hollywood and other popular entertainment industries within the country.

Japanese developers however, were better prepared for this technological dilemma. Their background in comics and animation gave them tools necessary to combat these limitations. Comics and animations, by not being live action, had a smaller emphasis on realism. Characters with unorthodox proportions and shapes could be created and put into interesting scenarios. This meant that among the Japanese public and developers, there was a smaller desire for creating realistic video games.[57] The limited technology of video games was a problem Japanese developers were able to overcome much easier. As quoted again by Aoyama and Izushi: “Here, technological limitations worked to their advantage: characters from comic books and animated films are far more suited to video games than are their more realistic counterparts from films.”.[58] Doing so allowed them to consistently create and release quality games that became successful in both Japan and the United States. A clear example of this is found in Nintendo. Much of their success was attributed to games with unique and appealing characters and scenarios: Donkey Kong, Super Mario Bros, and The Legend of Zelda being notable examples.[59] All of these games were created by Shigeru Miyamoto, a famous figure in the industry who, growing up, loved Japanese comics so much that he was part of a comic book club in middle school, and after that went to art school.[60] He was one of Nintendo’s first artists, and it was this artistic background that led him to create such successful games, which could only be possible thanks to the animation and comic book industries unique to modern Japan.[61] Indeed, just like with the United States industry, the influence of comic artists stayed with the industry. A look at international recognition of video games in 2015 found that Japanese firms gained the most awards within categories related to design and digital representation.[62]

            To conclude, video game industries should be viewed less as a brand-new business, and more as the result of existing entertainment and electronic industries within a country. The video game industry emerged and grew out of existing networks and using existing technologies. Understanding this was key to why Japan became so dominant in the early decades of the global game industry. Thanks to many of its institutions being centered in close proximity by virtue of Tokyo, the presence of a business culture that encouraged compromise and group thinking, and most importantly, having access to a mainstream consumer electronics, comic book, and animation industries, developers were given unique tools that were not available outside of Japan. These gave Japanese developers a comparative advantage that allowed them to create video games with appealing characters and scenarios much easier and at a much faster pace than their competitors. It was the video game industry’s ability to successfully establish links with other industries in Japan that allowed it to grow so quickly. The best example of this is the Pokemon series. The first games were published by Nintendo in 1996, with comics featuring the characters beginning publication later that year. The next year, an animated television series began airing, with films coming in the following years.[63] Pokemon would become one of the most profitable video game franchises, and it found great success because it was able to utilize the video game, animation, comic book, and film industries in Japan to create a successful brand of easily recognizable characters, and it could only do so thanks to the existence and connection of all these industries.

Annotated Bibliography

Aoyama, Yuko and Hiro Izushi. “Hardware gimmick or cultural innovation? Technological, cultural, and social foundations of the Japanese video game industry.” Research Policy 32, (2003): 423 – 444.
This article explored Japan’s video game industry, hoping to understand what laid the foundation for its growth and success. For this paper, it provided a history of the video game business in both Japan and the United States, while providing much detail with its examination of Japan’s creative and electronic industries.

Consalvo, Mia. Atari to Zelda: Japan’s Videogames in Global Contexts. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2016.
This book focused on exploring western reaction to Japanese games and why they were successful in the West. While it explored Japan’s game business very little, it did provide a few important points regarding Japan’s role in the global video game market.

Hanzawa, Seiji and Daisaku Yamamoto. “Recasting the agglomeration benefits for innovation in a hits-based cultural industry: evidence from the Japanese console videogame industry.” Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 99, no. 1 (2017): 59 – 78.
This article looked at the significance of Tokyo within the Japanese game industry, hoping to further understand the importance of agglomerations within a cultural ‘hits-based’ industry. For this paper, it provided extensive help on how Tokyo was instrumental to Japan’s game industry.

Hayes, Jack. “Economic Recovery and the Tokyo Games.” HIST 3370 lecture, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, March 13, 2019.
This lecture explored how Japan was able to recover so well economically following World War II. For this paper, part of the lecture focused on how Japan’s governmental ministries placed emphasis on technological innovation and research.

Inoue, Osamu. Nintendo Magic: Winning the Videogame Wars. New York, New York: Vertical Inc., 2010.
This book explores the history of Nintendo, while attempting to understand their core philosophies and culture that helped them find success within the game industry. For this paper, it provided a history of key figures within Nintendo, helping to understand how they were affected by wider trends within Japan.

Izushi, Hiro and Yuko Aoyama. “Industry evolution and cross-sectoral skills transfers: a comparative analysis of the video game industry in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom.” Environment and Planning A 38, (2006): 1843 – 1861.
This article looked at and compared the growth of the video game industry in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom. For this paper specifically, it separated global video game industry into three phases, with phase two being when Japan was dominant thanks to the unique skills provided from its comic book and animation industries.

Morioka, Rika. “Gender Difference in the Health Risk Perception of Radiation from Fukushima in Japan: The Role of Hegemonic Masculinity.” Social Science and Medicine 107, (2014): 105 – 112.
This article looked at gender norms within Japan, and how they affected reactions to the Fukushima disaster. For this paper, it explored Japan’s business culture and its role in male gender norms.

Riboldazzi, Federico, Cornelia Storz, and Moritz John. “Mobility and innovation: A cross-country comparison in the video games industry.” Research Policy 44, (2015): 121 – 137.
This article looked at the labour market within the video game industries of both Japan and the United States, dissecting the relationship between mobility within the labour market and innovation. For this paper, it offered a great insight into the differences between labour markets in the US and Japan.

Storz, Cornelia. “Dynamics in innovation systems: Evidence from Japan’s game software industry.” Research Policy 37, (2008): 1480 – 1491.
This article looked at Japan’s video game industry, attempting to understand why it had been so successful at innovation. For this paper, it explored the significance of pre-existing networks and markets, concluding that these connections allowed Japan’s industry to be effective at creating innovative software.

Szczepaniak, SMG. The Untold History of Japanese Game Developers: Volume 1. Self-published, Kindle, 2014.
This ebook featured the author traveling around Japan and interviewing various important and overlooked figurers in Japan’s early video game industry. It provided much insight into the day to day life during the 1970s and 80s in Japan, and what life was like for early video game developers.

“The Video Games’ Industry is Bigger Than Hollywood.” https://lpesports.com/e-sports-news/the-video-games-industry-is-bigger-than-hollywood [accessed March 24, 2019].
This article provided a short analysis of data released showing the global video game industry as of 2018. Importantly, it had information showing the growth of the video game industry as it overtook the film and music industries.

Wijman, Tom. “Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018.” https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half [accessed March 24, 2019].
This article provided a short analysis of data released showing the global video game industry as of 2018. It provided great information for the current role of different countries in the video game industry.

Wolf, Mark. The Medium of the Video Game. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001.
This book featured various scholars attempting to define, categorize, and understand video games and their history. For the paper, it featured important information on the video game industry during the period of research.

---

[1] “The Video Games’ Industry is Bigger Than Hollywood,” https://lpesports.com/e-sports-news/the-video-games-industry-is-bigger-than-hollywood, accessed March 24, 2019.

[2] Tom Wijman, “Mobile Revenues Account for More Than 50% of the Global Games Market as It Reaches $137.9 Billion in 2018,” https://newzoo.com/insights/articles/global-games-market-reaches-137-9-billion-in-2018-mobile-games-take-half, accessed March 24, 2019.

[3] Aoyama, Yuko and Hiro Izushi, “Hardware gimmick or cultural innovation? Technological, cultural, and social foundations of the Japanese video game industry,” Research Policy 32, (2003): 427.

[4] Izushi, Hiro and Yuko Aoyama, “Industry evolution and cross-sectoral skills transfers: a comparative analysis of the video game industry in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom,” Environment and Planning A 38, (2006): 1857.

[5] Mia Consalvo, Atari to Zelda: Japan’s Videogames in Global Contexts (Cambridge, 2016), 150.

[6] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 427.

[7] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1850.

[8] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1850.

[9] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1850.

[10] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 427.

[11] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 427.

[12] Riboldazzi, Federico, Cornelia Storz, and Moritz John, “Mobility and innovation: A cross-country comparison in the video games industry,” Research Policy 44, (2015): 125.

[13] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 427.

[14] Jack Hayes, “Economic Recovery and the Tokyo Games” (lecture, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, March 13, 2019).

[15] Mark Wolf, The Medium of the Video Game, (Austin, 2001), 44.

[16] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1846.

[17] Hanzawa, Seiji and Daisaku Yamamoto, “Recasting the agglomeration benefits for innovation in a hits-based cultural industry: evidence from the Japanese console videogame industry,” Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 99, no. 1 (2017): 67 – 68.

[18] Hanzawa, 67 – 68.

[19] Hanzawa, 64.

[20] Hanzawa, 66.

[21] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1850 – 1851.

[22] Storz, Cornelia, “Dynamics in innovation systems: Evidence from Japan’s game software industry,” Research Policy 37, (2008): 1485.

[23] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 435.

[24] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 425.

[25] Storz, 1485.

[26] Storz, 1485.

[27] Riboldazzi, 128.

[28] Morioka, Rika, “Gender Difference in the Health Risk Perception of Radiation from Fukushima in Japan: The Role of Hegemonic Masculinity,” Social Science and Medicine 107, (2014): 106.

[29] Riboldazzi, 121 – 122.

[30] Hanzawa, 70.

[31] Hanzawa, 69.

[32] Riboldazzi, 123 – 124.

[33] Riboldazzi, 131.

[34] John Szczepaniak, The Untold History of Japanese Game Developers: Volume 1 (self-pub., Kindle, 2014).

[35] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1847.

[36] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 432.

[37] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 432.

[38] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 431 – 432.

[39] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 438.

[40] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 438.

[41] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 439.

[42] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 439.

[43] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1851.

[44] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1854.

[45] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 438 – 439.

[46] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1851.

[47] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 439 – 440.

[48] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 439 – 440.

[49] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 437.

[50] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1851.

[51] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1851.

[52] Riboldazzi, 128.

[53] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1857.

[54] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1857.

[55] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1857.

[56] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1857.

[57] Storz, 1487.

[58] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1857.

[59] Aoyama and Izushi, “Hardware,” 427 – 428.

[60] Osamu Inoue, Nintendo Magic: Winning the Videogame Wars, (New York, 2010), 64.

[61] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1848.

[62] Storz, 1487.

[63] Izushi and Aoyama, “Industry,” 1848.